Distr.

GENERAL

CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9, General Comment No. 27
2 November
1999

Original: ENGLISH

General Comment No. 27: Freedom
of movement (Art.12) :
. 02/11/1999.

CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9,
General Comment No. 27.
(General
Comments)

Convention Abbreviation: CCPR
HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE

GENERAL COMMENTS ADOPTED BY THE HUMAN RIGHTS
COMMITTEE
UNDER ARTICLE 40, PARAGRAPH 4, OF THE INTERNATIONAL
COVENANT ON
CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Addendum

GENERAL
COMMENT No. 27 (67)*

Freedom of movement

(Article
12)

1. Liberty of movement is an
indispensable condition for the free development of a person. It interacts with
several other rights enshrined in the Covenant, as is often shown in the
Committee's practice in considering reports from States parties and
communications from individuals. Moreover, the Committee in its general comment
No. 15 (“The position of aliens under the Covenant”, 1986) referred to the
special link between articles 12 and 13. 1

2.
The permissible limitations which may be imposed on the rights protected under
article 12 must not nullify the principle of liberty of movement, and are
governed by the requirement of necessity provided for in article 12, paragraph
3, and by the need for consistency with the other rights recognized in the
Covenant.

3. States parties should provide the Committee in their reports
with the relevant domestic legal rules and administrative and judicial practices
relating to the rights protected by article 12, taking into account the issues
discussed in the present general comment. They must also include information on
remedies available if these rights are restricted.

Liberty of movement
and freedom to choose residence (para. 1)

4. Everyone lawfully within
the territory of a State enjoys, within that territory, the right to move freely
and to choose his or her place of residence. In principle, citizens of a State
are always lawfully within the territory of that State. The question whether an
alien is “lawfully” within the territory of a State is a matter governed by
domestic law, which may subject the entry of an alien to the territory of a
State to restrictions, provided they are in compliance with the State's
international obligations. In that connection, the Committee has held that an
alien who entered the State illegally, but whose status has been regularized,
must be considered to be lawfully within the territory for the purposes of
article 12. 2
Once a person is lawfully within a State, any restrictions on his or her rights
guaranteed by article 12, paragraphs 1 and 2, as well as any treatment different
from that accorded to nationals, have to be justified under the rules provided
for by article 12, paragraph 3. 3
It is, therefore, important that States parties indicate in their reports the
circumstances in which they treat aliens differently from their nationals in
this regard and how they justify this difference in treatment.

5. The
right to move freely relates to the whole territory of a State, including all
parts of federal States. According to article 12, paragraph 1, persons are
entitled to move from one place to another and to establish themselves in a
place of their choice. The enjoyment of this right must not be made dependent on
any particular purpose or reason for the person wanting to move or to stay in a
place. Any restrictions must be in conformity with paragraph 3.

6. The
State party must ensure that the rights guaranteed in article 12 are protected
not only from public but also from private interference. In the case of women,
this obligation to protect is particularly pertinent. For example, it is
incompatible with article 12, paragraph 1, that the right of a woman to move
freely and to choose her residence be made subject, by law or practice, to the
decision of another person, including a relative.

7. Subject to the
provisions of article 12, paragraph 3, the right to reside in a place of one's
choice within the territory includes protection against all forms of forced
internal displacement. It also precludes preventing the entry or stay of persons
in a defined part of the territory. Lawful detention, however, affects more
specifically the right to personal liberty and is covered by article 9 of the
Covenant. In some circumstances, articles 12 and 9 may come into play together.
4

Freedom
to leave any country, including one's own (para. 2)

8. Freedom to
leave the territory of a State may not be made dependent on any specific purpose
or on the period of time the individual chooses to stay outside the country.
Thus travelling abroad is covered, as well as departure for permanent
emigration. Likewise, the right of the individual to determine the State of
destination is part of the legal guarantee. As the scope of article 12,
paragraph 2, is not restricted to persons lawfully within the territory of a
State, an alien being legally expelled from the country is likewise entitled to
elect the State of destination, subject to the agreement of that State. 5

9.
In order to enable the individual to enjoy the rights guaranteed by article 12,
paragraph 2, obligations are imposed both on the State of residence and on the
State of nationality. 6
Since international travel usually requires appropriate documents, in particular
a passport, the right to leave a country must include the right to obtain the
necessary travel documents. The issuing of passports is normally incumbent on
the State of nationality of the individual. The refusal by a State to issue a
passport or prolong its validity for a national residing abroad may deprive this
person of the right to leave the country of residence and to travel elsewhere.
7
It is no justification for the State to claim that its national would be able to
return to its territory without a passport.

10. The practice of States
often shows that legal rules and administrative measures adversely affect the
right to leave, in particular, a person's own country. It is therefore of the
utmost importance that States parties report on all legal and practical
restrictions on the right to leave which they apply both to nationals and to
foreigners, in order to enable the Committee to assess the conformity of these
rules and practices with article 12, paragraph 3. States parties should also
include information in their reports on measures that impose sanctions on
international carriers which bring to their territory persons without required
documents, where those measures affect the right to leave another
country.

Restrictions (para. 3)

11. Article 12, paragraph
3, provides for exceptional circumstances in which rights under paragraphs 1 and
2 may be restricted. This provision authorizes the State to restrict these
rights only to protect national security, public order (ordre public),
public health or morals and the rights and freedoms of others. To be
permissible, restrictions must be provided by law, must be necessary in a
democratic society for the protection of these purposes and must be consistent
with all other rights recognized in the Covenant (see para. 18
below).

12. The law itself has to establish the conditions under which
the rights may be limited. State reports should therefore specify the legal
norms upon which restrictions are founded. Restrictions which are not provided
for in the law or are not in conformity with the requirements of article 12,
paragraph 3, would violate the rights guaranteed by paragraphs 1 and
2.

13. In adopting laws providing for restrictions permitted by article
12, paragraph 3, States should always be guided by the principle that the
restrictions must not impair the essence of the right (cf. art. 5, para. 1); the
relation between right and restriction, between norm and exception, must not be
reversed. The laws authorizing the application of restrictions should use
precise criteria and may not confer unfettered discretion on those charged with
their execution.

14. Article 12, paragraph 3, clearly indicates that it
is not sufficient that the restrictions serve the permissible purposes; they
must also be necessary to protect them. Restrictive measures must conform to the
principle of proportionality; they must be appropriate to achieve their
protective function; they must be the least intrusive instrument amongst those
which might achieve the desired result; and they must be proportionate to the
interest to be protected.

15. The principle of proportionality has to be
respected not only in the law that frames the restrictions, but also by the
administrative and judicial authorities in applying the law. States should
ensure that any proceedings relating to the exercise or restriction of these
rights are expeditious and that reasons for the application of restrictive
measures are provided.

16. States have often failed to show that the
application of their laws restricting the rights enshrined in article 12,
paragraphs 1 and 2, are in conformity with all requirements referred to in
article 12, paragraph 3. The application of restrictions in any individual case
must be based on clear legal grounds and meet the test of necessity and the
requirements of proportionality. These conditions would not be met, for example,
if an individual were prevented from leaving a country merely on the ground that
he or she is the holder of “State secrets”, or if an individual were prevented
from travelling internally without a specific permit. On the other hand, the
conditions could be met by restrictions on access to military zones on national
security grounds, or limitations on the freedom to settle in areas inhabited by
indigenous or minorities communities. 8

17.
A major source of concern is the manifold legal and bureaucratic barriers
unnecessarily affecting the full enjoyment of the rights of the individuals to
move freely, to leave a country, including their own, and to take up residence.
Regarding the right to movement within a country, the Committee has criticized
provisions requiring individuals to apply for permission to change their
residence or to seek the approval of the local authorities of the place of
destination, as well as delays in processing such written applications. States'
practice presents an even richer array of obstacles making it more difficult to
leave the country, in particular for their own nationals. These rules and
practices include, inter alia, lack of access for applicants to the
competent authorities and lack of information regarding requirements; the
requirement to apply for special forms through which the proper application
documents for the issuance of a passport can be obtained; the need for
supportive statements from employers or family members; exact description of the
travel route; issuance of passports only on payment of high fees substantially
exceeding the cost of the service rendered by the administration; unreasonable
delays in the issuance of travel documents; restrictions on family members
travelling together; requirement of a repatriation deposit or a return ticket;
requirement of an invitation from the State of destination or from people living
there; harassment of applicants, for example by physical intimidation, arrest,
loss of employment or expulsion of their children from school or university;
refusal to issue a passport because the applicant is said to harm the good name
of the country. In the light of these practices, States parties should make sure
that all restrictions imposed by them are in full compliance with article 12,
paragraph 3.

18. The application of the restrictions permissible under
article 12, paragraph 3, needs to be consistent with the other rights guaranteed
in the Covenant and with the fundamental principles of equality and
non-discrimination. Thus, it would be a clear violation of the Covenant if the
rights enshrined in article 12, paragraphs 1 and 2, were restricted by making
distinctions of any kind, such as on the basis of race, colour, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth
or other status. In examining State reports, the Committee has on several
occasions found that measures preventing women from moving freely or from
leaving the country by requiring them to have the consent or the escort of a
male person constitute a violation of article 12.

The right to enter
one's own country (para. 4)

19. The right of a person to enter his or
her own country recognizes the special relationship of a person to that country.
The right has various facets. It implies the right to remain in one's own
country. It includes not only the right to return after having left one's own
country; it may also entitle a person to come to the country for the first time
if he or she was born outside the country (for example, if that country is the
person's State of nationality). The right to return is of the utmost importance
for refugees seeking voluntary repatriation. It also implies prohibition of
enforced population transfers or mass expulsions to other countries.

20.
The wording of article 12, paragraph 4, does not distinguish between nationals
and aliens (“no one”). Thus, the persons entitled to exercise this right can be
identified only by interpreting the meaning of the phrase “his own country”. 9
The scope of “his own country” is broader than the concept “country of his
nationality”. It is not limited to nationality in a formal sense, that is,
nationality acquired at birth or by conferral; it embraces, at the very least,
an individual who, because of his or her special ties to or claims in relation
to a given country, cannot be considered to be a mere alien. This would be the
case, for example, of nationals of a country who have there been stripped of
their nationality in violation of international law, and of individuals whose
country of nationality has been incorporated in or transferred to another
national entity, whose nationality is being denied them. The language of article
12, paragraph 4, moreover, permits a broader interpretation that might embrace
other categories of long-term residents, including but not limited to stateless
persons arbitrarily deprived of the right to acquire the nationality of the
country of such residence. Since other factors may in certain circumstances
result in the establishment of close and enduring connections between a person
and a country, States parties should include in their reports information on the
rights of permanent residents to return to their country of
residence.

21. In no case may a person be arbitrarily deprived of the
right to enter his or her own country. The reference to the concept of
arbitrariness in this context is intended to emphasize that it applies to all
State action, legislative, administrative and judicial; it guarantees that even
interference provided for by law should be in accordance with the provisions,
aims and objectives of the Covenant and should be, in any event, reasonable in
the particular circumstances. The Committee considers that there are few, if
any, circumstances in which deprivation of the right to enter one's own country
could be reasonable. A State party must not, by stripping a person of
nationality or by expelling an individual to a third country, arbitrarily
prevent this person from returning to his or her own country.

Notes

1/ HRI/GEN/1/Rev.3, 15 August 1997, p. 20
(para. 8).

2/ Communication No. 456/1991,
Celepli v. Sweden, para. 9.2.

3/
General comment No. 15, para. 8, in HRI/GEN/1/Rev.3, 15 August 1997, p.
20.

4/ See, for example,
communication No. 138/1983, Mpandajila v. Zaire, para. 10; communication
No. 157/1983, Mpaka-Nsusu v. Zaire, para. 10; communication Nos. 241/1987
and 242/1987, Birhashwirwa/Tshisekedi v. Zaire, para. 13.

5/ See general comment No. 15, para. 9, in
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.3, 15 August 1997, p. 21.

6/ See communication No. 106/1981, Montero v.
Uruguay, para. 9.4; communication No. 57/1979, Vidal Martins v.
Uruguay, para. 7; communication No. 77/1980, Lichtensztejn v.
Uruguay, para. 6.1.

7/ See
communication No. 57/1979, Vidal Martins v. Uruguay, para. 9.

8/ See general comment No. 23, para. 7, in
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.3, 15 August 1997, p. 41.

9/ See communication No. 538/1993, Stewart v.
Canada.

* Adopted at the 1783rd
meeting (sixty-seventh session), held on 18 October 1999.

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